The rapid development of lithium-ion battery (LiB) recycling highlights its potential for addressing resource scarcity and environmental sustainability. Yet, the lack of systematic, process-specific safety frameworks means that critical hazards are often overlooked. Unlike existing studies that primarily emphasize technological advances, this study explores the process safety of LiB recycling through a struc-tured methodology. We conduct a review to map recycling processes (pretreatment, pyrometallurgy, and hydrometallurgy) and to uniquely identify and categorize the hazards arising from physical and chemical factors in these processes. In this regard, risk analysis was conducted to correlate hazards with potential accident scenarios, supported by accident case studies and industrial safety standards. To address these risks, this paper presents a comprehensive risk mitigation framework that utilizes the hierarchy of controls theory (elimination, substitution, engineering controls, administrative controls, and PPE). This methodology provides actionable recommenda-tions for policymakers and industry practitioners to address existing technological and regulatory gaps to promote safe and sustainable LiB recycling practices. These insights offer new perspectives to the evolving discussion of sustainable energy systems, emphasizing safety as a cornerstone of innovation and implementation.

Low-cost lithium-sulfur batteries (LSBs) with high specific energy density have drawn the attention of the industrial community as lithium-ion batteries get closer to their theoretical limits. However, their commercialization is constrained by the use of lithium metal anodes and the shuttle effect of lithium polysulfides (LiPSs) in redox processes. Ketjenblack (KB) was used in this research work to embed cobalt nanoparticles with a diameter smaller than 40 nm in order to create a suitable and affordable cathode host. Incorporating Co nanoparticles with KB that has a porous structure and great electrical conductivity allows the host to confine LiPSs chemically and physically, which is beneficial for lowering the shuttle effect and lengthening the lifespan of LSBs. Additionally, by using the lithiated form of sulfur (Li2S) rather than sulfur as the cathode material, the lithium source was moved from the anode to the cathode, reducing the safety concerns related to Li metal anodes and enabling the use of non-metallic anode materials like silicon and tin in LSBs. Li2S-Co@KB cathode has an initial discharge capacity of 850.3 mAh gLi2S-1. The cell has shown strong cycling stability at a 0.5 C current rate for over 300 cycles, with low capacity fading of 0.19% per cycle, as well as exceptional C-rate performances up to 5 C.

Lithium ion batteries are considered the most promising energy storage and conversion device candidates for use in future electric vehicle applications due to their ultrahigh energy density. In this study, a facile, ultrafast and green flame spray pyrolysis method was developed well to efficiently fabricate submicron-sized lithium cobaltite spheres from an aqueous spray solution of lithium nitrate and cobalt nitrate. Molar ratios of lithium: cobalt in the precursor solution was altered at three different levels, viz., 1: 1, 1. 3: 1 and 1. 7: 1. Then samples obtained under same conditions were calcined. Also, sample obtained with molar ratios of lithium: cobalt 1. 7: 1, under different conditions atmosphere was calcined. The sample calcined in oxygen atmosphere with low flow was phase pure crystalline rhombohedral lithium cobalt oxide. Furthermore, this sample showed an acceptable performance as cathode active material of lithium ion battery. The rechargeable capacity was 162 mAh g-1 at 0. 1 C and 101 mAh g-1 at 1 C and capacity retention of 84% after 50 cycles at this rate for this sample was observed.

Lithium-iron-orthosilicate is one of the most promising cathode materials for Li-ion batteries due to its safety, environmental brightness and potentially low cost. In order to produce a low cost cathode material, Li2FeSiO4/C samples are synthesized via sol-gel (SG; one sample) and solid state (SS; two samples with different carbon content) methods, starting from Fe(III) as the raw materials (low pristine materials). The three samples are characterized for purity, structure, and morphology. The electrochemical tests showed the different charge-discharge behaviors of the SS and SG samples. Electrochemical behaviors were investigated in terms of voltage vs. square root of capacity diagrams and their slopes. The best results are obtained for the SS sample containing the larger amount of carbon.

The capacity loss of lithium ion batteries during charge/discharge cycles is one of the important parameters in the evaluation of these kind of batteries, so that battery lifetime is defined as the number of charge/discharge cycles until the battery capacity reaches to 70% of its initial capacity. Therefore, it is important to have a simple mathematical model which can easily predict capacity loss of lithium ion batteries with acceptable accuracy. In this study, capacity loss were measured experimentally for first 10 cycles of Samsung commercial lithium ion battery at three temperatures of 25, 35 and 45oC. Further, a semi empirical model has been introduced including power law concept for temperature and the square root of cycle number to predict the lithium-ion battery lifetime or capacity loss. The parameters of the model have been obtained based on square of error of the prediction of experimental capacity using Levenberg-Marquardt algorithm. Using this model, maximum charge/discharge cycle of the battry is calculated acceptably with less than 15% of error.

In this study, the Li-ion batteries temperature increase during the discharge process was measured empirically and evaluated using numerical simulation. Moreover, the battery packs cooling using the water, air and water-nano composition fluids such as water-alumina, water-copper oxide, and water-gold was studied through numerical simulation. Accordingly, the battery cooling was simulated by CFD method and the results were compared with water and air coolants. The results indicated the significant effect of nanofluid on the battery packs cooling under the same conditions. The batteries mean temperature with 5C discharge rate with the cooling process with water-alumina was decreased to 305. 31 K after 300-sec discharge (Initial temperature: 300 K). The mean temperature of batteries under the cooling process with water-copper oxide and water-gold nanofluid was decreased to 307. 09 and 301. 14 K, respectively. However, the temperature of the battery packs was respectively decreased to 362 and 313 K using air and water-fluid cooling. Another important point is that lithium-ion batteries are subject to spontaneous discharge at 60%, which confirms the results of the present research. In air cooling method, the discharge rate of batteries reached 61. 5%, while other nanofluids (water, water-copper oxide, and water-alumina) decreased the discharge rate by 57% and water-gold nanofluid dropped the discharge rate to 53%.

Lithium-ion batteries, owing to their high power density, long lifespan, and reliable performance, are widely utilized in electric vehicle applications. The conventional charging method for these batteries is based on the constant current–constant voltage (CC-CV) protocol, in which the battery is initially charged with a constant current until a predefined voltage threshold is reached, followed by constant voltage charging with gradually decreasing current. Considering the variation in the internal resistance of the battery during the charging process, applying a variable charging current can reduce energy losses and enhance overall system efficiency without compromising battery lifespan. In this study, an optimized charging method for lithium-ion batteries is proposed, taking into account real-time battery parameters and their relationship with the state of charge (SOC). The charging process is modeled accurately and analyzed using the YALMIP toolbox and algorithms based on the branch and bound method. In this model, indicators such as the final state of charge, final cell temperature, and energy losses are considered as optimization criteria. Simulation results demonstrate that adaptive current charging, compared to constant current charging, leads to reduced energy losses and increased battery lifespan, as it provides sufficient time for voltage polarization in each charging cycle. These findings highlight the importance of developing intelligent charging strategies to enhance the performance of lithium-ion batteries in advanced applications.